Proctor, Richard A.: The Great Pyramid: observatory, tomb, and temple (New York, 1883)

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Proctor, Richard A.
The Great Pyramid: observatory, tomb, and temple — New York, 1883

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https://doi.org/10.11588/diglit.15#0041

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t Mr. Proctor, of all writers of our lime, best conforms to Mattheit»

Preface

in this : that while certainly meant to be a tomb,

his while to build it ; (4) why separate structures … how potent were those ancient superstitions about

Contents

VII

I. History of the Pyramids . ... . ι … THE HISTORY OF SUNDAY......287

Chief Illustrations / Woodcuts in Text

VIII

through Floor of King's Chamber . . To face p. 138

I: History of the Pyramids

HISTORY OF THE PYRAMIDS. … nothing seems to have been known certainly on … tradition has reached us which purports to have … vanced in more recent times. Including ancient

ideas are found on close examination to be tenable

I propose to give here a brief account of some … evidence. In fact, to advance any theory at … facts recorded by history or tradition, noting, as

the rulers of ancient Egypt proposed to fulfil by … According to Herodotus, the kings who built … greater. He tells us that, according to the Egyp- … occupied in constructing a causeway by which to

HISTORY OF THE PYRAMIDS. 5 … not much like even to mention their names. Hence … and allowed the people to resume the practice of … be shown, that it may be well to inquire whether

seems not only to have understood them correctly, … Chephren, and Mycerinus ; while, according to the … these kings is not questioned. As to the true … from Herodotus, and proceed to consider the sig-

HISTORY OF THE PYRAMIDS. 7 … structure. Whether the king was persuaded to … mous amount of labour and material to such a … which either he did not care to explain to them or

but intended in some way to promote the welfare … (and to whom the Egyptians, in their traditions,

HISTORY OF THE PYRAMIDS. 9 … building designed to record in its proportions, and … terpretation of the story related to him by the

much force to their religious hate of Shepherd times … Egyptian point of view) who had the confidence to … over the mind of Cheops as to persuade him to

HISTORY OF THE PYRAMIDS. 11 … to abandon the religion of his people. Taylor, … ning of human time, to keep a certain message … devices to record its object, when the same ma-

ment by which the pyramid was only to subserve … it seems impossible to explain why Chephren built … ing a pyramid at all ? The only answer to this

question seems to be that Chephren built the … it subserved or was meant to subserve for Cheops. … either never left or else returned to the religion of

told that Asychis desired to eclipse all his pre- … to the Great Pyramid quite as much as to the … ning and superintending the work, was unable to … himself, which led to the theory that the pyramids

HISTORY OF THE PYRAMIDS. i$ … referring to the tomb theory of the Egyptian … said to have been enclosed in the labyrinth of the … of elevation. Farther to the west the dimensions

to the character of the place of burial for distin-

HISTORY OF THE PYRAMIDS. 17 … far as can be seen, to a people among whom … placed as to have two sides lying east and west, … easy to understand why any building at all, except

round the sun's rays passed from the eastern to … four faces of the pyramid ; or, according to a Peru- … suitable for a temple devoted to sun-worship. Yet

HISTORY OF THE PYRAMIDS. 19 … tended to serve solely as astronomical observatories. … ing may be supposed to have fulfilled as an astro-

interesting to us in the present day, as proving … together ; and that if any other is alluded to after … Coloured pyramid, in allusion to its red granite, … The report of Ibn Abd Alkokm, as to what

HISTORY OF THE PYRAMIDS. sr … are to be used to them, and the books which treat … be from the beginning of time to the end of it.'

ascending passage lending to the so-called King's … joints are barely discernible to the closest inspec- … to every part of that red-walled, flinty hall, but … garnished too, as it were, and, according to the

HISTORY Öf THÈ PYRAMIDS. 23 … from one end to another ; nothing except an … to suppose that it was used as a safe receptacle for … pains to instruct an Egyptian monarch how to

posed to be, the safe guarding of which would … if the pyramids were used at all to receive trea- … clearly do not possess any claim to serious con- … In the first place, the history of the pyramids

HISTORY OF THE PYRAMIDS. i§ … have much to teach the Egyptians in the matter … to suppose that the advantages which he hoped to

the East may have refused to give their assistance … in any case, that they were opposed to idolatry ; … went forth from Ur of the Chaldees, to go into the … Chaldsean people visited Egypt from time to time. … have resisted all endeavours to secure their

history ûf tue Pyramids. ιη … even to a shoe-latchet, and that I will not take … to men of this spirit. Such men might help him … pyramid was erected to promote, would not be … so convinced of their knowledge and power as to

ject over which they seemed to possess so perfect … is not very difficult to decide what was the subject … have been it would be difficult to say. But it is

HISTORY OF THE PYRAMIDS, 29 … pyramids themselves, tends to suggest that mem- … Chaldasans, extended their wanderings to Egypt, … pyramids were not intended solely or chiefly to … mention, however, that they were able to predict the return of

formation which these visitors might be able to … one place to another until thou art happy and con- … in seeking to penetrate into the mysteries of His

HISTORY OF THE PYRAMIDS. Ji … omitting the references to the Creator, would … more attractive to offer than a mere series of … Those radiant Mercuries, that seemed to move

theirs, and akin to them also in their monotheism,

HISTORY OF THE PYRAMIDS. 33 … no way concerned to show that the shepherd-astro- … is all that I care to maintain—namely, that these … reference to his death and burial, but to his birth

body. Each king would require to have his own … If the work had been intended only to afford … which they supposed the celestial orbs to exert in

HISTORY OF THE PYRAMIDS. 35 … astrologers ascribed to special numbers, figures, … not invented to give support to the theory I am at present advocat-

which, according to Prof. P. Smyth, is fulfilled in … tions, for its length is equal to the five hundred

HISTORY OF THE PYRAMIDS. 37 … as these are precisely what we might expect to … should be so proportioned as to make the height … tunnel pointed to the pole-star of Cheops's time … astrologer would attribute to such a relation, it

.what the astrologer would require in order to get … connection with astrology, not hoping to discover … hoped to discover.

HISTORY OF THE PYRAMIDS. 39 … mids, those assigned to the Great Pyramid relate … sighed a treasurer to the East pyramid (' a statue … perfumes which are to be used to them, and the … most ancient city of .Egypt, and commenced the first dynasty of

theory of the pyramids is to be found in the … tainly related to the personal fortunes of the

HISTORY OF THÈ PYRAMIDS. 41 … cannot expect any theory about the pyramids to

II: The Religion of the Great Pyramid

truths to the human race. The founder of the … and in France the Abbé Moigno. I propose to

natural means, the architects were instructed to … help, enabled to square the circle, and symbolised … of some mighty top around the perpendicular to … to symbolise that relation in the dimensions of the

imparted to them, and they embodied that dimen- … ally communicated to them ; so that the true mean … ficantly refers to the past, so also it indicates the

on whomsoever it shall fall it will grind him to … serious anxiety to disprove them, we shall find … The first point to be noticed is the geographical … Little importance, I conceive, can be attached to

responding to the handle, was, he considers, ' that … It does not seem to be noticed by those who

tions are each so exactly fulfilled as to render the … designedly curved so as to have its centre so … designed. It would not be easy to, draw the precise line dividing

seems to have been in the thoughts of the pyramid … were anxious to place it in latitude 30o, as closely … difficulty to determine the position of any required … noon in spring (or, to speak precisely, on the day of … events which all men would regard as to all intents and purposes

true noon (supposed to occur at the moment of the … tions for building the Great Pyramid, to prefer a … comes possible to determine the position of the

bright star close by the pole is seen to revolve in a … probably a brighter star, lay near enough to the … position according to the latitude of the observer. … stellation, as its name indicates. Bayer also assigned to it the first

to the pole, the pole of the heavens is raised one- … supposed to have adopted this means of determin- … the sun or the stars to guide them to the geo-

effect is so marked on bodies close to the horizon … spring or autumn), then since, owing to refraction, … they observed to be lower than it really was. For … peculiarity, which ftolemy would seem to have been the first

travelled a little farther north to find the proper … gives to a station the appearance of being in a … have only then to inquire whether the Great Pyra-

refraction, would appear to be very near indeed to … suggested appears altogether heretical to the pyra- … nearly as possible to each of two conditions, … placed to the northern brink of its hill, that the

are, utilised in enabling the Great Pyramid to stand … The next circumstance to be noted in the posi-

difficult to see how the builders would make use … passage, that star at each successive return to that … be wider than necessary to allow a plumb-line to

to determine the point vertically below the point … boring to the mouth of the slant tunnel would lie … suggested to astronomical architects who had … orientation appears to be greater than could be … object of the tunnelling would, in fact, be to determine how far

corresponding roughly to a displacement of the … to it by Professor Smyth. He himself, however,

according to this view, have been formed in order … mid's base, and inclined 26o if to the horizon, the … Between these two we should have to choose, on … width in a direction perpendicular to its upper and

sage to the subterranean chamber immediately … intended to be used for observing meridian transits … seeking to obtain the time, would observe the … rock to a distance of more than 350 feet.

purpose the pyramid was intended to fulfil, a sub- … have had a quasi-scientific desire to make a lasting … Smyth thinks, to be equal to the 500,000,000th … mid attests so much—to measure with considerable

poses, to have had the 500,000,000th part of the … of the sacred cubit, supposed to have contained

unsafe to base a theory on the supposition that the … base is not now in a condition to be satisfactorily

from widely conflicting base measures as to assume … 1 It may, perhaps, occur to the reader to inquire what diameter … indicate a diameter very nearly equal to the true polar diameter of the

Ghizeh's ancient structure.' To minds not moved … than Professor Smyth's to the estimated mean probable value of the

reference to the earth's diameter and the year, the … the fact was not to be credited to the architects. … cubit equal to one 20,000,000th part of the earth's

period. The error, according to the best modern … very much closer than the other supposed to be … to such reasoning. They argue that, in the first … 1 It is, however, almost impossible to mark any limits to what

not bound to have a square base for the pyramid ; … According to the best modern measurements, it … to make the height bear to the perimeter of the … inclined to see confirmation for some of his theory in these pheno-

posed that the exactness of the approximation to … pyramid, the ratio of the height to the side of the … the ratio as 3-14159 to 1. The real fact is, that … It requires no mathematical knowledge at all to

circle-squarer once to De Morgan (' Budget of

and all human science too, did not begin to trouble … of the patriarchal age of the earth according to … to the ratio in question. No one who considers … ' men to trouble themselves ' about the famous

height of the pyramid to appear to symbolise the … value than even to the value 91,400,000 recently

height bears to half a diagonal of the base the ratio … I to ι,000,000,000' (or ten raised to power nine), … wards, or points to sunshine ' {sic) ' by mne. Nine,

amounts to this, that if the number of days in the … pyramid inch is assumed to be one-5 00,000,000th … a distance equal to two hundred times her own … were a true surface, and the sun were to commence rolling along

then they require to be very cautiously regarded, … to the builders of the pyramid ; or both hypotheses … sented by modern science) from among which to

supposition), then it can be understood to typify an … to secure a coincidence is that the dimensions should … pyramid inches to 47^32 inches, so that the vertical … deduced 47*24 pyramid inches to be the transverse

the height taken one way only, and impartially to … case, let us ask what the entrance passage has to do … desired to symbolise—the pyramidalists base their

III: The Problem of the Pyramids

deceived in the attempt to appreciate their distance

great skill, and with an attention to points of

Moreover, it is obvious that to obtain such ac- … time uses the instrument he is setting up to adjust … to determine, with the greatest accuracy attainable … With regard to their astronomical position, it … horizon to the point overhead (the zenith), and

the way from the horizon to the point overhead. … to recognise that no possible choice of latitude

to the mathematicians who planned the Great … and set due west, an upright AC were found to … not seem to rise due east, or set due west, for he is … passed below—understanding the word ' really ' to

liarity only affecting the sun when close to the … at any season to guide them with … index (so to speak), and would have no idea … Adopting this method—the shadow method—to

had trusted solely to the shadow method. The … serving the stars, around the pole, in order to

to the horizon, the more it is raised by atmospheric … They would have endeavoured to determine

above the horizon as we pass to higher and higher … shadow plan would have set them 1,125 yards to

to detect the effect of atmospheric refraction on … operations to one method only), they would … intend to set the base of the pyramid in lati-

According to Professor Piazzi Smyth, whose obser- … The position of the base seems to prove beyond … known to the builders of the pyramid. It does … ever, we supposed the builders of the pyramid to

to the result obtained by employing this method. … It is impossible, however, to place the least … other way, not open to exception, we knew that

attached to the two methods. But it is altogether … star method to the shadow method, as a means of

owing to refraction, the pole-star would appear to … for a moment by any one not prepared to regard … which reasoning could not very well be brought to … tion) pointed to the pole-star when immediately

line considerably inclined to the horizon, because … would serve to determine the meridian line of the

is directed considerably to the north of the east … of the pole than to dig a tubular hole into the solid

tion-line. It would be easy to obtain the direction

corresponding to the underground tube would be … directly to the pole-star j when due north, starting … would'now have to make a selection between its

When they had bored far enough down to have … line let down from F to G reached the floor of the

well refuse to believe that the slant passage was … to the great one. But the slant tunnel under the … amounts to more than 350 feet, so that, viewed

rock on which the pyramid is built, was to observe … purpose in the first place was essential to the plans

passage to determine what was the position of the … as to the exact epoch when the star occupied the … account, to the elevation of the star observed … that we ought to infer the angle for the entrance

100

sponds to somewhat large time-differences.

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that the builders of the pyramid intended to record … that its builder wanted to tell future ages anything … else it has been ever since Cheops died. To assert

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render them impossible, is to ask that men should … to the true pole of the heavens ; and they may … had its origin long before the date commonly assigned to the Flood. … unexplained way the comparative youth of the human race. To

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I am therefore somewhat surprised to find Sir … contradiction to those who would of set purpose throw back the

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passage is liable to the objection that, the mouth … but what has that to do with the question whether … the pole of the earth was known to the builders of … Let us return to the purposes which seem to … line F D, in fig. 5, and being thus ready to cut out

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to which King Cheops was prepared to go. The … on a firm rock basis) to see that the nature of the … from that, the hill country directly to the south of … much to do with the selection of the dimensions of … venient one (in its numerical relation to previous

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but ' why Cheops wanted his pyramid to be about ' … which was available, subject to the conditions … is preferable to Professor Smyth's. If, by the way, … Professor Smyth, ' to say what the ancient Egyp-

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Thè problem ôf the pyramids. to? … holds to have been used by the pyramid builders … nor any multiple of it, is to be found in a single one

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referred to is the working cubit of 2θ| inches, or … cubit or working Egyptian yard measure, so to … Lincoln's Inn Fields were enlarged to a square

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houses on either side to Charlotte Street and Mon- … The height of the pyramid is equal to seven- … exterior I here propose to mention. Sir E. Beckett … tion which the pyramid builders intended to em-

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its sides equal to the height of the pyramid. … about to erect the building itself, the architects … height corresponding to the place where the pro-

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close to the surface to be formed eventually by the … architect could scarcely fail to take into account … marking it would be to indicate where the passage … face of the inclined passage to the middle of the

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otherwise explained, but I shall leave the reader to … above and below, was rectangular to the length of

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stone to the tunnel to have lain. … posed to have been ignorant of the simple pro- … more for rectangularity to the passage axis,' was a

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seems, from its upright position, to have had ' some- … downwards to the place where an ascending pas- … appears was to have taken place in the year 1881. … To return to the pyramid.

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assuming that his purpose was to provide in some … from D's upright to a's would d"

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chief of all purposes to which a great public obser- … fail to see that the builder of the Great Pyramid … been directed to the position of the pole-star when … would have had to run deeper down into the solid … the question of obtaining the true level came to be

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Considered with reference to the labour and cost to … liquids which was, of course, well known to them,

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the process of orienting to a much greater height. … gest itself to any one knowing these laws, would be … pendicular to the surface at the point of incidence,

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were adding to the pyramid. When, as their work … to contain the rays from the pole-star after reflec- … seem to have done, as is shown in fig. 5, the dimen- … sued had not led us to expect to find precisely such

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as to partially fill the angle thus formed at B, the

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marked, and then the plug left to slide down to the … the same angle to the horizon as the descending … have to be very closely set and carefully cemented, … to another ; but this explanation is open, as Beckett points out, to

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to insist on some forced explanation—' why did the … where, and yet with so little desire to call general … passage, appreciable only to a careful eye and a … a sign to Professor Piazzi Smyth and the pyramidal-

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passages were all to be signs. It may show great … to an alien race ; but it seems a long way more … also have been so directed as to show some bright star when due

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acceptable to pyramidalists, who prefer to believe … Now, taking the date 2170 b.c., which Professor Smyth assigns to … years earlier than 2170 B.C., and that Bunsen has assigned to Menés

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drously-gifted architects were idiotic enough to … consider the Great Gallery, which to the astronomer … should expect to find in a massive structure such … been visible to the naked eye, even when southing in full daylight.

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builders, by an imperfect method, to hit acci- … intended originally to subserve that purpose.

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pyramid wanted to orient it very carefully, simply … to the meridional plane, just as an astronomer of … point of their passage from the eastern to the

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the building of colossal tombs seems to have … sage is changed to one of great height, so as to … And here let us pause to inquire—seeing that

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is shown in fig. 7 would be unsuitable. To men- … servations on successive nights to determine the

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But it may be said, How are observers to … some reference to such a purpose. They are at a

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leaning on them, stepping on to them, and so … corresponding to these holes. Then a bench … could be set up by which to diminish the field of

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found, or were likely to be found. But holes in … to be carried up to a certain height, and there open … anywhere along the tube, according to the posi-

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transit observations is to determine the time at … conveyed to him but from the upper end of the

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there, and persons appointed to mark the passage … Or they might be close to the mouth of the gallery … in the way of other observers, who ought to be

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central point ought not only to command direction- … somewhat either to the west or to the east of the … posed to be viewed from above. The four sockets, … Fig. 9 is, however, chiefly intended to show the

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widest part, reaching a narrower part somewhat to … cate time signals readily both to the observers in

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the gallery and to the observer at 0. All such … pleted, which would carry it to a height of about … I should set an observer at n., to observe in

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s., to observe in the corresponding directions be- … considerable altitudes, stations nearer to the up-

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ing rods) would be able to make observations only … the picture. But this would have given to the

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Gallery, a very close approximation to true sidereal … would not have omitted to note the advantage of … the objects they were intended to subserve) to carry … must not forget that transit observers have to … parallel to the equator from a certain assigned … ran from k to M, carrying vertical rods, across

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to any required height). The horizontal bar could … If ..a telescopist in our own time will try to plan … courses were supposed to rule the fates of men and … materials, to the most sumptuous and magnificent

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to a curious eye; and that which adds grace to … show the true height to be more nearly 28 feet), … measured transversely ; that is, at right angles to

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the gallery at solar noon just reached to the edges

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Similar remarks would apply to the moon, … of this star during the last 4,000 years has been Such as to increase

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the equator, and the year begins according to the … something to do with the Pleiades, those pro-

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belonging to Taurus, but as forming an inde- … perfectly oriented as to show that astronomical … enabled the builders to secure anything like the … to latitude 30o (which was evidently what "they

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be apt to say that no greater accuracy than (for … proaches much closer to exactness than the best … so hung as to be brought into line with the pole-star, would not … the plumb-line should be nearly 100 yards long, to be seen (near the

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at any rate enabled them to see the pole-star readily, just äs the … would be far more difficult to take the orientation for one pyramid … from the level of "the entrance to the descending passage, to the place

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nomer would make to secure such a result, we may- … essential, or even desirable, to increase or maintain … able astronomers to observe stars when due south, … Egyptians, like all ancient astronomers, paid great

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it is always directed to the meridian, and has, … equatorial, and imagines that to be the chief ob- … When the equatorial is used to make a time

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instrument is used in direct subordination to the … much of them, belonged ex necessitate to but a … nomers of the Great Pyramid took to secure good

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I am as old as Egypt to myself, … vatory of ancient Egypt—the most perfect ever … of Lincoln's Inn, rising by just fifty layers to a … lines to the two stars, Alpha Draconis and Alpha

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being ready to admit that the date of the Pyramid … 1 Some may be disposed to reject a change which they may … reason to be struck by the coincidence. But it should hardly be

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of the Great Pyramid wanted to have an astro- … reason to believe that in the days of the pyramids … is very difficult to imagine that this really was the … trust in his successors so far as to believe they … posing he trusted them to this degree, their con-

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for believing it to have been all but completed … Pyramid (at least) had always seemed to me … regarded as of such importance as to justify the … ments so especially related to them, that their long

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given to an astronomical observatory. Common … Now, it is not reasonable to suppose King … lives to build for himself a tomb, was not a man … priesthood (though always with reference to the … observations than Cheops obtained in his pyramid, we have not to

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I do not wish to suggest that Cheops was wickedly … considerations to that one sole line along which … the astronomy of ancient Egypt, it is the idea that … ideas that underlie the ancient system of astrology,

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with the Scandinavian deity assigned to Saturday. But of course … distinctly attributes the invention of the week to the Egyptians, and … Das Alte Indien. Dion Cassius refers to the connection between

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except as astrology to the old Chaldaeans and … made to depend on the moon, but for their original … Onward to vaster, wider rings,

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begin to see how the erection of the mighty mass … as a benefit also to his people : in whatever sense … sojourn there, had doubtless become thoroughly accustomed to the

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by means of it he could learn only what was to … the Great Pyramid which even comes near to

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value related to himself alone. As an astrological … was such faith), it was worth while to build even … character. Of no other theory, I venture to say,

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to this very day it would have retained its … solely for selfish purposes. It was to be the tomb

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required to reap even a tithe of the knowledge … logical theory of the Great Pyramid is open to

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worth his while to expend that and more on … These lines remain to this very day in use … its relations (now unmeaning) to a horizontal,

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in which all the expense and labour given to all

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invite special attention to this point. It is one of … sanction, for his brother, Chephren, according to

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allowed enormous sums to be expended on his … Egypt taught their rulers to recognise in themselves, … to suppose that a number of costly separate tomb

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moment that Cheops would have objected to such … ing it to be interred there, if the sole or even the … jection to the theory that the chief purpose for … good faith as to feel sure that, after his own death,

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would be able to carry out the purpose for which … theory which seems so strangely to have escaped … bility of the merely tombic theory (to use a word … must have been intended to serve some useful … that each pyramid served some purpose useful to … not to borrow his brother's tomb when Cheops was.

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departed, or Mycerinus so honest as not to despoil … seems to have been well assured that Chephren … gether to his successor. … kept by itself. Even to this day, the astrological

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inferior to the pyramid of Cheops, the pyramid of

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know of human nature to suppose that Asychis … it adds enormously to the difficulties of the pyra-

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mid problem to suppose that Cheops and Cheph- … to find if the Great Pyramid was erected to its … nomical observations to determine, and partly … princes have been known to entertain of their near

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learn, according to the astrological doctrines in … little from ancient writers to form any satisfactory … statement handed down to us respecting the use of … that the pyramids of Egypt (which, according to

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presumably—one may say certainly—relating to … to astronomical observations made for astrological … there we find faith in astrology. But to say truth, … they believed the heavenly bodies to be for

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that the functions of the stars were, according to … sible theories to sustain the weight against them.

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to all intents and purposes, they are not so much … continued throughout his life, to determine his … labours of many myriads of his subjects, to so … have been able to provide in some way for the

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cated) which gives the slightest answer to these … wild theory which attributes the Great Pyramid to

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stupendous records of the length to which tyranny … our time, are not for a moment to be compared … main, records of at least the desire to increase the

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of misery to the lowlier classes, have increased the … even better fruits ; so the efforts of man to work

Appendices / Appendix A: Great Pyramid Measures [...]

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' Our Inheritance in the Great Pyramid,' led me to believe … circumference of a circle to its diameter—a quantity

185

was induced to undertake a more extended discussion … necessary to attempt a solution of the following problem.

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It is probably owing to the remarkable relation in the … been called the key number to the dimensions of the

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verse to the theory of a connection between the pyramid … pyramidists to be 500,000,000 pyramid inches, or 7,891 '41

188

was, therefore, much surprised to find that the pyramid … in error to the extent indicated, or is the value I have … found it to be 78o 25' 33"; and, deducting this from … a very close approximation to the calculated polar dis-

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ner gives a peculiar importance to it, and accordingly I

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measure corresponding to our English mile, and contain- … equal to the area of a section of the earth through the

Appendices / Appendix B: Excavations at the Pyramids

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advance upon the science known to the builder of the … time in modern history, though the work was not on a … 1 From a letter to the Academy.

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five months of last season), to which it is a necessary … cleared enough to examine it throughout, and to enter … been cleared in parts to show the form. No bottom was

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rubbish ' on the west side of the pyramid prove to be all … They would suffice to house two or three thousand men, … to have retaining walls built in it to hold up the stuff.

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to consist of tipped out, stratified, clean chips of lime- … and found, in every case, not to consist of heaped stones, … Great Pyramid was accidentally uncovered close to the … the growth of theories, as the Great Pyramidp7vves to be

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relations supposed to connect the Great Pyramid with … to be all once more perfectly fulfilled. What will be done … relation which Herodotus says it was intended to fulfil, … equal to the radius of a circle having a circumference

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slant at the edge very nearly as 9 vertically to 10 horizon- … the first only was their building rule), how easy it is to … be free to reject all three, on the sound plea that since … Then, again, according to the measurements just

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number equal to the number of inches which there are in … merely to show how easy it is to work such things :— … manner of the abomination of desolation to which in our … to the number of miles separating our solar system

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from that star which, according to the best Egyptolo- … to notice that the most remarkable feature of his paper … (which I need hardly say is not known to anything

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representing inches), as to compel us to believe that the … of the circumference to a diameter of a circle. If the … deavouring to connect the pyramid with the solar system.

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to be done all over again.

The Origin of the Week

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from the length of the synodic months . . . and that reference to … resting facts have been brought to light as research … amined alone, seems to be established almost

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much care to its preparation that they have had … On the other hand, there is much to be said in … logical relations. I know of none better suited to

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are not half-known to most of us. As civilisation … believe, to increase the number who have a familiar … telescope is as often as not turned to the object

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with astronomical facts much more important to … precisely what they were likely to notice, in what … measures, or else as only second to the day. But … able skill. I am referring to the commonplace

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spring ard autumn warm, might be made to be- … natural year is far too obvious to have been over-

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stages of civilisation (it was) more common, to … should be associated with the Latin verb to measure … ' with the Hebrew manah, to measure.' Note also … name manna is given to the food found in the … Whewell points out that ' if we are to attempt to

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ascend to the earlier conditions of language, we … abstract and general notion, to measure.' This is … whom they derived the usage, had come to regard

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signifying ' to measure,' which he oppugns. Even … obvious to observation, the motions of the moon … circling motion around the earth ; but to ordinary … But instruments of some kind are necessary to

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ancient times from the moon's motions than in any- … bably used, to give the measures required in those … ' when we come to inquire closely into the question of a sovereign's … is practically determined by a reference to what is called a sidereal … years would be required to lengthen the terrestrial day by one full

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seem to me to add greatly to the probability of … logous to this first subdivision is to be recognised

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unimportant distinctions to the men of old time, … the moonlit night might be apt to forget the value … We can well understand, indeed, that, according to … veniently marked by the moon (1) coming to full,

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The time of the moon's coming to the same part … fested as to afford, at the time, an indication of the … began to come into view again on one side (having

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be still less likely to observe the black phase as an … tioned, which would lead the first observers to … Let us pause for a moment to see whether this

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first result, to which we have been led by purely … inevitably do, to more exact time-measurers, might … found no trace of any such division in the ancient … in Genesis was probably abridged, special reference to the moon's … through, and shine on the heaven ; on the ninth day to a circle he

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the half of the month from new to full having

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to look for some connection between the length of … they had formed precise notions as to the number … difficulties naturally occurred to men, these natural … be the necessity of apportioning work to those

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have become necessary to measure the month by … said to Jacob, ' Because thou art my brother, shouldst thou there- … days, for the love he had to her. ' It is obvious that the length of … the passage just quoted ; and there is no reference to a weekly day

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of days to the quarter of a month. Four periods … progress of the months to serve for a considerable

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ing to both the waning and the reappearing moon, … day every thirty-two months, to correct for the … The moon by us to you her greeting sends,

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recognise the uselessness of attempting to use any

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ficance was given to the monthly and weekly … meaning was attached to them. Assuredly, what- … motions and their relation to the convenience and … by every nation which paid any attention to the

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evidence has been found to show that a seven-day … It is easy to show, however, that the division of … the middle of the moon's disc. Content at first to … who referred to the astronomers of the Alexandrian school, not to

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made to carry four such threads forming a square, … fell otherwise, the fifth thread might be made to … one-third of the way from ' new ' to ' full.' When

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thirds of the way from ' new ' to ' full.' Either … responding stages from ' full ' to ' new.' Thus, … way across : then comes ' full,' corresponding to

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the seven days' period came to be distinguished, as

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seems to afford some explanation of the week of … 2ist, and 28th correspond to the same day of the … sabbaths. So to regard it, however,—that is, to

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remaining so long in use as to obtain an unshaken … stars. It is not easy to determine, from à priori … to help men in the measurement of time, the deter-

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nised and remembered at each return to particular … probably it was the object which led to the first … So soon, however, as men had begun to study

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and to watch the motions of these groups athwart … namely, from west to east, or in the direction con- … moon keeps to one track round the heavens ; but … time, she would be found slowly to return to it.

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obvious to every one who watches the moon, either … stars, belong to an astronomy much more advanced

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and stars were made to be for signs and seasons, … to make out their meaning, or might fail altogether.

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great number have been completed in order to … thirds of a day in each circuit would mount up to

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This, however, is a process belonging to much later … note nothing to suggest that she is travelling round … brighter stars, it would be all the more difficult to

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oned twenty-seven, with from time to time an extra … an occasional intercalary mansion, belonged to a … It is important to observe that astronomers

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astronomers are known to have done. We read … gave way to the twelve, the names of which, … It appears to me not unlikely that the change

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from lunar to solar astronomy, from the use of the … special time chosen for it. We should expect to … studied the subject, before it became possible to

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Chaldœan astronomers even until now. As to the … I have said that we should expect to find the … above mentioned is related to the Pleiades in a … nearly central in the group, was carried to such a

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week may be considered to have become what it … was made to get rid of the week as a measure of … week has descended to us. But this part of the

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nomical relations as were found to be involved, … been supposed. The key to much that was myste- … mysterious Whole. In all the ancient systems of

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rived a nature-worship relating more directly to

Saturn and the Sabbath of the Jews

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" their code of conduct seems not to have advanced … <- •■ ■ Their substantial adhesion to the creed they

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English were greatly given to missionary enter- … Judaism to Christianity.'" … with the teachings of Christ, both as to the purpose … a day set apart to refresh those who toil, but as

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to them. But although the thoroughly non-Chris- … which might be most beneficial to the working … the people to worship the gods of other nations.

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when it was unlucky to undertake any work. … history of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, in the Elo- … history, including an exact record of the rules for

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ence whatever is made to thè observance of the … of worship), ' this also were an iniquity to be

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commanded thee to keep the Sabbath-day.' — … ance of the Sabbath to the time of the exodus, … It is unreasonable to suppose that Moses would … would have been hopeless to undertake it. The

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to be associated with the worship of false gods. … as not of Jewish origin, but common to all the … not properly be dealt with in the space available to … miah's opinion, at any rate) the ordinances relating to burnt-offerings

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me. I wish to consider only the evidence which … known to ancient astronomers as moving upon the … by the Mosaic laws as to festivals, illustrated by … been made to show that in the beginning of the

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from all other evidence, repeated references to … to her husband that she would ' run to the man of … even to make the poor of the land to fail, saying, … (1 Samuel xx. 18, 19) that Jonathan said to David,

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go down quickly, and come to the place where thou … which appear to move among the stars. It was by … mean lunar month). Hence the feast of the new moon came to be … point, the Jews were prone to return to the moon-worship, whence … women knead their dough, to make cakes to the queen of heaven,

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astrology were known to the Jews, but that Moses … parted to the Egyptians of the days of the

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Egypt, saying unto Aaron, Make us gods to go … and gave them up to worship the host of heaven ; … is understood by Grotius to refer to Saturn, the highest of the planets. … course, signifies ling. Because children were sacrificed to Moloch,

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shown, to the direct inference that the Sabbath … some risk of appearing to weaken the argument … Society, referring to an inscription beginning, … a report not professing to be verbatini), 'that this … associated with the planet Saturn. It is necessary to call attention

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ruler of the gods, thus answering to the Gretk … 'All we can now venture to infer is that the … isted. The name of this god appears to have been … to him in the celestial hierarchy, although called … In a note, Layard refers to doubts expressed … linson's later reading of the inscription referred to

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six corresponding to the remaining planets, though … optical instruments among Assyrian remains, might have led to the … naturally come to be regarded as the God of Time, on account of … not important, however, in relation to the subject of this paper.

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week. Since we have to pass to other sources of … Asshur or Nisroch corresponded to the ' highest ' … mythology to observe that the Greek god Chronos … by means of the common relation of both to

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Many circumstances point to the Chaldsean … nations derived from the Chaldasans, to show the … Leisure Hours, first series), I called attention, seven years ago, to … ready to admit. Like every improvisatore, the glorious old minstrel

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peculiar that it must of necessity be ascribed to … as astronomers, Chaldseans were held to be the … There is much more evidence of this kind to which, for want of

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in Appendix A. to my treatise on Saturn) need … supporter of such a system. ... To each planet … traces even to the present day in those professors

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distance corresponded to the period. We know … Whether they had clear ideas as to the nature of … to these bodies ; and as there were twenty-four

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days in order, being assigned to the planet ruling

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planets, we must look to the source indicated by … in use among astrologers. It is impossible to say … in one God, and that even to this day they are

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it difficult to dispossess his followers of their belief … 1 We are apt to overlook the Pagan origin of many ideas referred … only addition appears to have been the introduction of the human

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of the week to the outermost or highest planet, … the palace of Nineveh, Layard makes the following remark : ' To … introduction into the Ark of figures so remarkable as the cherubim … places on one of the balances a vase supposed to contain his good … Ancient Egyptians, shows that the Hebrew Thummim is a plural

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because it was held unlucky to work on that day. … stitions would lead us to infer that the chief deity … were those corresponding to the sun and moon—

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day as a religious observance to propitiate this … My cors, that hath so wide for to turne, … day dedicated to Saturn may have been suggested … of rest to continue. But in order that the people

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of that one God in whom he enjoined them to … no choice as to the time we must assign for the … paper need be regarded as necessarily opposed to

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it seems to me that those who thus regard the … to miscall it the Sabbath. Since it was permis- … goodness, were eager to prove their virtue by in-

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' to rest and be refreshed ' on that day. Whether … left to the reflection of the reader.

Astronomy and the Jewish Festivals

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have shown that so soon as a people began to … and must soon after have been led to divide

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not refer to her light, indicate her use as a time- … it would be found necessary to employ successive

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weeks of seven days without reference to their … would be found necessary to use them separately, … shown how the seven days came to be associated … Moreover, to the outermost planet, partly because

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assign to the successive hours of a day the planets … and the first hour of the next day to the next … system, we come to Mercury's day (Mercredi),

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sinful to work—was but the natural outcome of the … were taught to find a worthier motive for their Sab- … not the evidence now to be considered, which indi- … It must, in the first place, be obvious to any one … length as the ' moon of honey '), it was the reverse in ancient times,

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the exodus to be in its outlines true, however mani- … evidence to show that the Jewish ceremonial system … xxviii. and xxix., though the reader will do well to … together—and, indeed, would seem to have passed

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sacrifices were not originally offered to the … savour unto me, shall ye observe to offer unto me … sacrificial observances belongs essentially to Sun

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to be poured unto the Lord for a drink offering.' … partly derived from sacrifices originally offered to … and moon is referred to in terms implying that … to another cult than that in which the lawgivers

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deavoured to train the Jewish people. In Le- … that the jubilee was to be holy unto them. In … Jewish, belonging to the time before the week and … to the Jewish ' week of weeks.'

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Sabbath of the new moon was originally held to … to 14), we still find that the monthly offerings … We come next to the two most important festù … is assigned to the time when the sun crosses

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in addition to the 'two young bullocks, one ram,

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out) being the nearest whole number to the number … ' to make an atonement ' for the people. … given by the Jewish lawgivers to one (at least) of … ceremonial was manifestly derived. It is to be ob- … tain any doubt) as to the astronomical origin of

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we find it altogether impossible to resist the in- … when the Jews had been taught no longer to … finding in festivals supposed to be peculiarly

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when the sun is just beginning to rise above his … dated according to these old Sabaistic ideas, that

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stice. However, it would take us too far to follow … doubt whatever seems to rest on the astronomical

The History of Sunday

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THE HISTORY OF SUNDAY. … certain military stores should be forwarded to the

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288 THE HISTORY OF SUNDAY. … risk of serious mischief to the British forces in … ignorant enough and silly enough to believe in … extends to the quarter-deck and farther yet, certain

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THE HISTORY OF SUNDAY. 289 … for reinforcements and military stores were to be … the well-known episode in the history of the Mac-

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290 • THE HISTORY OF SUNDAY. … to say truth, far more sensibly. They regarded the … But if such preparations have to be made, they … to take place before long on the question of open-

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THE HISTORY OF SUNDAY. 291 … relative positions assigned by the authorities to … much of novelty in the points I shall have to

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292 THE HISTORY OF SUNDAY. … ments that one which specially refers to the seventh … information as to the manner in which the seventh … monstrous if it were to be assumed that, as respects

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THE HISTORY OF SUN DA Y. 293 … Fourth Commandment from the Sabbath-day to … Christians to work on the Sabbath, giving preference … to the Fourth Commandment, Sunday during the

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294 THE HISTORY OF SUNDAY. … reasons best known to himself he allowed field … he had probably regarded, and continued to regard, … to be transacted.

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THE HISTORY OF SUNDAY. 295 … multitude preferred flocking to the circus than to … though time was required to develop fully the … to begin at three o'clock on Saturday afternoon,

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29β THE HISTORY OF SUNDAY. … amusements. Attempts were made at this time to … .—whether because beards will continue to grow … veracity) to put in documentary evidence on this … visited those who paid no heed to this prohibition.

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THE HISTORY OF SUNDAY. 297 … which blood flowed when he began to eat it on … came to his assistance on Monday.' … relating to the observance of imperial birthdays

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298 THE HISTORY OF SUNDAY. … Sunday to the institution of the Church, we are … equally wrong upon any of the saints' days to … right to elect which of the holy days created by … good reasons can be given. It is useless to appeal … Bptlet us pass on to the time of the Reformation,

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THE HISTORY OF SUNDAY. 299 … time of the Reformation it was thought well to … opposed as it could be to the teaching of modern … Sabbath, the Lord's day was instituted as a day to

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300 THE HISTORY OF SUNDAY. … given to God, in hearing His Word read and taught, … God.' (What a comfort it must have been to the … time, when necessity shall so require, to labour, … magistrates,' which he considers, however, to be a

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THE HISTORY OF SUNDA V. 301 … Reformation doctrine is Tyndale's answer to Sir T. … and one not enough to teach the people. Neither … to grow out of the more reasonable (though in one

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302 THE HISTORY OF SUNDAY. … Somersetshire that to throw a ball on the Sabbath … are to be compared with his for their permanent … due to Bounde, not to Calvin or Knox. For, as … been discussed, got up with great warmth to express his conviction

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THE HISTORY OF SUNDAY. 303 … one day on a visit to Calvin, found that worthy … continues to work), the New England Sunday was … the Lord shall be pit to death! The thirty-eighth

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304 THE HISTORY OF SUNDAY. … were beginning to observe Sunday as dismally as … observance of Sunday had begun to be regarded

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THE HISTORY OF SUNDAY. 305 … had to pay two marks for having ' spits and roasts … No one will care to take the Puritans of the seven-

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3o6 THE HISTORY OF SUNDAY. … considers the Puritans of sufficient authority to … world from whom a cultured people, would care to

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. THE HISTORY OF SUNDAY. 307 … be enjoined to allow none to remain in the streets … rity, we find equal difficulty when we turn to the … Whatever reason may be used to show that Con-

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3o0 THE HISTORY OF SUNDAY. … from the Sabbath to Sunday, how does the matter … be still.' Are we to keep this law of the seventh

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THE HISTORY OF SUNDAY. 309 … was held to be of at least equal importance with

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3io THE HISTORY OF SUNDAY. … Jewish law of the Sabbath, we ought not only to

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THE HISTORY OF SUNDAY. 3Ì1 … not have commended themselves ere this to the … in his place,' interpreted it to mean that every man … precepts relative to the Sabbath ; for instance, … to a kind of threshing. Shoes without nails might

Astrology

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We are apt to speak of astrology as though it … errors into which men have fallen in their desire to

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to the ancients should be thought to possess also … interval of time, was seen to possess a powerful … of revolution. Was it not reasonable to suppose … twenty-nine, might well be thought to be rulers of … it was natural to attribute to them influences more

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were assigned to particular planets, or to particular … ing particular influences to such planetary aspects … must have led to some very surprising fulfilments, … have been used solely to improve the system of

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every reason to believe that he could experi- … have materials from which to form a system of … stituted, some being disposed to trust chiefly to

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observation, while others were ready to generalise, … tendency of astrologers would be to invent systems … to this position. No office could be more im-

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necessary to mention the history of astrology to … astrology with so much assiduity as to be con-

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astrology. The people of Thebais, according to … ancient. … building. The Birs Nimroud,1 supposed to be

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point of the joke being different, perhaps, to astronomers than to

320

erected by Semiramis, and dedicated to Belus or … intended to advance the science of astronomy. … Egypt to make such lavish provision of money and … celestial observations in ancient times, we find in … those who built those ancient observatories : the

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system, according to their belief, was deduced from … It is not easy to determine whether the worship of … Those radiant Mercuries, that seemed to move,

322

of the Jewish nation compelled continually to … them, and the new meaning he attached to them ;

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scarcely open to question. The tenacity, indeed, … day learn to lift the veil concealing the future from

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