Smith, William: A smaller dictionary of Greek and Roman antiquities (London, 1871)

ARATRUM.

32

ARCA.

below its junction with the pole, was used to
hold the dentate or share-beam, which was
either sheathed with metal, or driven bare
into the ground, according to circumstances.
The term vomer was sometimes applied to the
end of the dentate. To these three parts, the
two following are added in the description of
the plough by Virgil :—1. The earth-boards,
or mould-boards (aures), rising on each side,
bending outwardly in such a manner as to
throw on either hand the soil which had been
previously loosened and raised by the share,
and adjusted to the share-beam [dentate),
which was made double for the purpose of
receiving them. 2. The handle (stiva). Vir-
gil describes this part as used to turn the
plough at the end of the furrow; and it is
defined by an ancient commentator on Virgil
as the " handle by which the plough is di-
rected." It is probable that as the dentalia,
the two share-beams, were in the form of
the Greek letter A, which Virgil describes by
dnplici dorso. the buris was fastened to the
left share-beam and the stica to the right, so
that the plough of Virgil was more like the
modern Lancashire plough, which is com-
monly held behind with both hands. Some-
times, however, the stica was used alone and
instead of the buris or tail. In place of stiva
the term eapulus is sometimes employed. The
only other part of the plough requiring notice
is the coulter [cutter), which was used by the
Romans as it is with us. It was inserted
into the pole so as to depend vertically before
the share, cutting through the roots which
came in its way, and thus preparing for the
more complete overturning of the soil by the
share. Two small wheels were also added
to some ploughs. The plough, as described
by Virgil, corresponds in all essential parti-
culars with the plough now used about llan-
tua and Venice. The Greeks and Romans
usually ploughed their land three times for

each crop. The first ploughing was called
proscindere, or novare (veoitrfJai, vea^eoSai) ;
the second offringere, or iterate; and the
third, Iirare, or tertiare. The field which
underwent the " proseissio " was called ver-
vactum or novate (Veds), and in this process
the coulter was employed, because the fresh
surface was entangled with numberless roots
which required to be divided before the soil
could be turned up by the share. The term
" offringere," from ob and frangcre, was ap-
plied to the second ploughing; because the
long parallel clods already turned up were
broken and cut across, by drawing the plough
through them at right angles to its former
direction. The field which underwent this
process was called agcr itcratus. After the
second ploughing the sower cast his seed.
Also the clods were often, though not always,
broken still further by a wooden mallet, or
by harrowing (occatio). The Roman plough-
man then, for the first time, attached the earth-
boards to his share. The effect of this ad-
justment was to divide the level surface oi
the " ager iteratus " into ridges. These were
called porcae, and also lirae, whence came
the verb lirare, to make ridges, and also
delirare, to decline from the straight line.
The earth-boards, by throwing the earth to
each side in the manner already explained,
both covered the newly-scattered seed, and
formed between the ridges furrows (auAaxes,
sulci) for carrying off the water. In this
state the field was called seges and tputoAot.
When the ancients ploughed three times only,
it was done in the spring, summer, and au-
tumn of the same year. But in order to ob-
tain a still heavier crop, both the Greeks and
the Romans ploughed four times, the proseis-
sio being performed in the latter part of the
preceding year, so that between one crop and
another two whole years intervened.
ARBITER. [Judex.]

Aratrum, Plough (now used at Mantua).
2. Temo. 3. Dentale. 4. Culter. 5. Vomer.

ARCA (ki/3wtos). (l) A chest, in which
the Romans were accustomed to place their
money ; and the phrase ex area solvere had the

term arcae was usually applied to the chests
in which the rich kept their money, and was
opposed to the smaller loculi, sacculus, and

meaning of paying in ready money. The j crumena.—(2) The coffin in which persona