DOI chapter:
Essays
DOI chapter:Ning, Yao: Propagating the Confucian Virtues: Chinese Artists in Serialized Printed Portrait Books
DOI Page / Citation link:https://doi.org/10.11588/diglit.70035#0023
Yao Ning
over the course of this period of four hundred years; rather, it discusses some of the
key ideas behind the representative books and the artists that are featured. The
following section first introduces the early development of Chinese portraiture and
printing by providing a brief overview.
The Early Development: A Brief Introduction
Chinese portraits, painted on either silk or paper, were originally ritual objects used
in funerals and for ancestor worship. Rituals included offerings such as food and
incense that were presented in front of portraits and/or tablets inscribed with the
names of the dead. It was believed that the soul of the departed would come back to
be reunited with the portrait at the moment the offerings were delivered. In other
words, portraits served as resting places for dead souls.4 It was expected that the
dead would bring good luck to the living family or simply let the living continue to
carry on with their own lives; at the same time, this expectation could not be realized
unless the worship had been performed correctly. The lifelike details of the portrait
including correct dress and headdress was very important to ensure the dead soul
would be able to find the right image. To this point, the Chinese philosopher Cheng Yi
(1033-1107) once wrote: "In our times, people use images by professional
painters when conducting sacrificial rituals for their ancestors. But if even one hair is
not correctly rendered, the sacrifice will be for another man, which is most
inconvenient.”5 The ancestral portraits used in post-burial family, ancestor, or state
rituals emerged and developed in the Song dynasty (960-1279), especially after the
establishment of the canon, Jiali (Family Rituals), by the Neo-Confucianist Zhu Xi
(1130-1200).6
By the eighth century at the latest, xylography, the method of reproducing text
from characters cut in relief on wooden blocks, had been invented in China.7 Initially,
the most relevant use was for disseminating Buddhism and Daoism. The Diamond
Sütra printed in China in 868 and currently preserved at the British Library is the
world's earliest dated printed book (Fig. 2).8 By the tenth century, xylography had
become widespread.9 Early religious printing is very much engaged with physical
and sensorial experiences involved - not only visually, but also haptically or with the
sense of taste for medical healing, such as drinking water mixed with ash of the burnt
print. The twelfth century witnessed the first golden age of printed book publishing
in China.10 One reason was a high demand for the Confucian classics, which became
essential for the civil service examinations, keju kaoshi government officials
were selected for state offices based on these exams. The earliest extant illustrations
included in printed books were illustrations in a special edition of the Confucian
classics for the use of students preparing for the civil service examinations in this
period. The composition of the print was known as zhuan tu hu zhu U I or more
specifically shang tu xia wen _k ® T X, meaning illustrations above and text below.
The earliest text-image composition of this type first appeared in printed Buddhist
16
over the course of this period of four hundred years; rather, it discusses some of the
key ideas behind the representative books and the artists that are featured. The
following section first introduces the early development of Chinese portraiture and
printing by providing a brief overview.
The Early Development: A Brief Introduction
Chinese portraits, painted on either silk or paper, were originally ritual objects used
in funerals and for ancestor worship. Rituals included offerings such as food and
incense that were presented in front of portraits and/or tablets inscribed with the
names of the dead. It was believed that the soul of the departed would come back to
be reunited with the portrait at the moment the offerings were delivered. In other
words, portraits served as resting places for dead souls.4 It was expected that the
dead would bring good luck to the living family or simply let the living continue to
carry on with their own lives; at the same time, this expectation could not be realized
unless the worship had been performed correctly. The lifelike details of the portrait
including correct dress and headdress was very important to ensure the dead soul
would be able to find the right image. To this point, the Chinese philosopher Cheng Yi
(1033-1107) once wrote: "In our times, people use images by professional
painters when conducting sacrificial rituals for their ancestors. But if even one hair is
not correctly rendered, the sacrifice will be for another man, which is most
inconvenient.”5 The ancestral portraits used in post-burial family, ancestor, or state
rituals emerged and developed in the Song dynasty (960-1279), especially after the
establishment of the canon, Jiali (Family Rituals), by the Neo-Confucianist Zhu Xi
(1130-1200).6
By the eighth century at the latest, xylography, the method of reproducing text
from characters cut in relief on wooden blocks, had been invented in China.7 Initially,
the most relevant use was for disseminating Buddhism and Daoism. The Diamond
Sütra printed in China in 868 and currently preserved at the British Library is the
world's earliest dated printed book (Fig. 2).8 By the tenth century, xylography had
become widespread.9 Early religious printing is very much engaged with physical
and sensorial experiences involved - not only visually, but also haptically or with the
sense of taste for medical healing, such as drinking water mixed with ash of the burnt
print. The twelfth century witnessed the first golden age of printed book publishing
in China.10 One reason was a high demand for the Confucian classics, which became
essential for the civil service examinations, keju kaoshi government officials
were selected for state offices based on these exams. The earliest extant illustrations
included in printed books were illustrations in a special edition of the Confucian
classics for the use of students preparing for the civil service examinations in this
period. The composition of the print was known as zhuan tu hu zhu U I or more
specifically shang tu xia wen _k ® T X, meaning illustrations above and text below.
The earliest text-image composition of this type first appeared in printed Buddhist
16